Glossary of Terms

A

AACR:

American Association of Cancer Research, the largest professional cancer organization in the world.

Acetic Acid:

The chemical name for vinegar.

Acetylation:

Addition of an acetyl group to a molecule or proteins.

Acetyl Group:

A molecular group derived from acetic acid important in metabolism.

Adenocarcinoma:

Cancer of cells found in your “glands”. For example testes, ovaries, or other tissues that have secretory properties (eg, the lining of the colon). Secretory comes from the word secrete, which means “release”.

Agammaglobulinemia:

A genetic disease in humans as a result of mutation and inactivation of the Btk gene resulting in profound immune-suppression.

Alimta:

A drug used to fight cancer. In 2004, Alimta was approved to treat mesothelioma, a rare cancer associated with asbestos exposure in the lungs and to treat lung cancer patients who failed initial therapy. Alimta is marketed by Eli Lilly & Company.

Alkylating Agents:

A type of chemotherapy.

Alzheimer Disease:

A disease of the brain that afflicts the elderly. First it affects functions of the brain like memory and as the disease progresses other bodily functions are lost, ultimately leading to death.

Ameliorate:

To make better, in this case to reduce symptoms.

Amino acid:

Building block of protein.

Analogs:

A molecular structure similar to another molecular structure.

Anaphylaxis:

A severe reaction to a foreign substance in the body that brings on an immune response.

Anatomic:

Structural composition or orientation of a tissue or of the body.

Angiogensis:

The formation of new blood vessels, a process that is essential to tumor growth.

Antibiotic:

A compound or substance that kills and inhibits the growth of, or destroys, certain other microorganisms.

Antibody:

A type of protein release by B cells of the immune system that binds to a specific pathogen and marks it for destruction.

Antigen:

A substance that is recognized as foreign by the immune system and stimulates the generation of antibodies.

Antiparasitic:

A compound that is used to treat a class of diseases transmitted by parasites such as Lyme disease or trichinosis.

Anti-IgE:

Proteins in the body that bind a specific protein in the body called IgE. IgE stands for “immunoglobulin E”, a protein responsible for many allergic reactions and for fighting parasites.

Anti-TNF:

Working against tumor necrosis factors (TNF) which are a group of cytokines (signaling proteins) that can cause cell death.; anti-TNF means works against TNF proteins.

Antiviral:

A compound used to stop the reproduction of a virus by binding to receptors or causing cellular change.

Apoptosis:

A term meaning programmed cell death or cell suicide, usually involves an orderly interruption of cell functions resulting in cell death.

Albumin:

A common protein found in blood. It is also the main protein found in egg whites.

Arrhythmia:

A disturbance in the rhythm of the heartbeat.

Arterial thrombosis:

Thickening or clotting of the blood within the vessels that carry blood away from the heart.

Arthritis:

Inflammation of the joints.

ASCO:

American Society of Clinical Oncology.

ASH:

American Society of Hematologists, a professional organization that studies blood related disorders.

Assay:

Qualitative or quantitative analysis of a drug and its function, laboratory tests.

Asthenia:

Chronic fatigue or muscle weakness, a side effect of chemo therapy.

Atom:

The building block of all matter.

Atopic dermatitis:

An allergic disorder of the skin like eczema.

Atrial fibrillation:

When irregular rhythm prevents the heart's ventricles (chambers) from pumping blood efficiently to the rest of the body, restricting blood flow to the rest of the body.

Autoimmune:

An immune response by the body against one of its own cells or tissues.

 

B

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Basophil degranulation:

When basophils release histamines.

Basophils:

A type of circulating white blood cell. Only represents about 0.01% to 0.3% of circulating blood cells. They participate in inflammatory reactions.

B-cell:

One of the cell-types in the immune system responsible for the production of antibodies. They are known as white blood cells and help fight infection.

B-cell lymphoma:

Non-Hodgkin's Lymphomas caused by malignant B-Cell lymphocytes.

B-cell receptor (BCR):

A protein on the surface of B cells that when engaged (ie, bound) by specific proteins causes the B cell to grow and develop. Engaging the BCR is also known as “activating” the BCR.

BCR transduction:

A protein-to-protein signaling pathway within the B cell when the BCR is activated.

Bendamastine:

A type of chemotherapy.

Benzamide:

A chemical derived from benzoic acid that may be useful as an HDAC inhibitor.

Bioavailability:

Degree to which, or rate at which, a drug or other substance is absorbed or becomes available at the site of physiological activity after administration.

Biologics:

Commercial products created through biotechnology.

Biomarker:

Any measure of biological activity derived from a patient in response to a therapeutic intervention.

Biotechnology:

The use of living organisms or their products to modify human health and the human environment

Blood Plasma:

The clear, liquid part of the blood composed mainly of water and proteins, in which the blood cells are suspended.

Bone Marrow:

The flexible tissue found in the hollow interior of bones. In adults, the marrow in large bones produces new blood cells.

Brain Metastasis (brain mets):

A tumor that spreads from its original location to other areas in the body is a metastasis; a tumor that spreads to the brain is called a brain metastasis.

Bruton’s tyrosine kinase (Btk):

A tyrosine kinase that transmits signals from the B-cell antigen receptor to activate B-cells. The Btk named after Dr. Bruton who detected this kinase. The Btk protein is found specifically inside B-cells, without the Btk protein, B-Cells can not grow and do not function.

Btk inhibitor (Bruton’s or B-Cell Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitor):

An inhibitor of the kinase which is essential for transmitting B-cell activation signals. Once inhibited the B-cell is silenced and further maturation is inhibited.

 

C

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Calcitonin Hormone:

A hormone that helps control the balance of calcium in the human body.

Cancer:

A disease caused by out-of-control growth of abnormal cells.

Capillaries:

The smallest of a body’s blood vessels.

Cardiac ST/T changes:

Changes in an electrocardiogram. An electrocardiogram reads the electrical changes in the heart and records them as a graph. ST/T is a specific part of the graph.

Carcinoma:

General name for malignant cancer of epithelial cells. Epithelial cells make up tissues that line the cavities and surfaces of structures throughout the body.

Cascade:

A series of chemical or physiological processes that occur in successive stages, each of which is dependent on the preceding one, to produce a culminating effect. The steps involved in the clotting of blood occur as a cascade.

CD 4,3,28,63,69:

CD stands for “cluster of differentiation.” They are proteins found on the surfaces of cells that are used to identify one type of cell from another.

Cell:

A basic unit of a living organism which can only be seen under a microscope. It is the building block of tissue as one brick is part of a brick wall.

Cell Proliferation:

An increase in the number of cells as a result of cell growth and cell division.

Chemotherapy:

The application of a drug that is used in fighting cancer, it attacks the tumor and kills the tumor cells.

Chromatin:

An organized structure in a cell that helps organize cell information. It describes a structure of DNA bound to proteins.

Chromosome:

All the DNA in a cell is organized into packages or structures that are called chromosomes. Each chromosome contains a part of the total DNA in a cell. As an example, there are 23 chromosomes in human cells and the Y Chromosome contains DNA that codes for male sexual characteristics.

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL):

A type of cancer of the blood and bone marrow.

Cisplatin:

A chemotherapeutic drug containing platinum used in the treatment of metastatic ovarian or testicular cancers and advanced bladder cancer.

Clinical Trials:

Biomedical or health-related research studies in human beings that follow a defined plan to determine the risks and benefits of a given therapy. Clinical trials are often done in phases (PhaseI, II, III, IV) to test experimental treatments, prevention, diagnosis, screening and quality of life.

Clotting:

The clump or solid mass of blood that forms to stop bleeding in a wound (eg, a scab).

Coagulation:

A complex process by which blood forms clots.

Coagulation Cascade:

A series of processes that results in the formation of blood clots.

Coagulation Factor:

Any of the protein in the blood whose actions are essential for blood coagulation.

Cognitive Functions:

Also known as mental functions. These include "thinking", "feeling", "sensing" and "intuition" as well as “memory”. These functions are often impaired when cancer spreads to the brain and may be further impaired by some anti-cancer treatments.

Cohorts:

Groups of people with shared characteristics.

Collagen:

A group of proteins that makes up a large part of connective tissue (eg, tendons and ligaments) and are also found other parts of the body (eg, skin, muscles, and eye).

Collagen Induced Arthritis Model (CIA):

A disease model for arthritis in animals to help scientists explore and analyze the disease.

Comparative:

As applied to the set up of a clinical trial that is done in a way to compare the current standard of care against the new, to be tested drug. Patients in the trial are randomly assigned to get either the new drug or the standard of care. The new drug has to exceed the benefits of treatments that are already available.

Complete response:

Disease free by conventional standards.

Complex:

A structure consisting of a central molecule connected to surrounding molecules.

Complexed:

Combined in the form of a complex.

Confidence Interval:

A term used to define the range in which we expect the clinical trial parameters lie.

Control Arm:

Those patients enrolled in a trial that did not receive the drug but typically the standard of care. Once the treatment phase is completed, the results of the control arm are compared to those of the treatment arm.

Controlled Trial:

A clinical trial wherein the investigational agent is being compared with another drug (or drugs) considered standard therapy for the disease being studied.

Consortium:

A group, association, or partnership.

Cryopyrinopathies:

A group of rare autoinflammatory diseases that includes familial cold autoinflammatory syndrome and Muckle–Wells syndrome.

Crystallography:

A process used to determine the molecular structure of a protein or other complex molecules.

CT Scan:

CT stands for computed tomography. It is a medical imaging method using computers to generate a 3D image from a series of X-rays.

Cutaneous:

Relating to the skin.

Cutaneous T cell lymphoma (CTCL):

Cancer of white blood cells known as T cells.

Cytokine:

Signal proteins that act as mediators in immune response.

Cytotoxic:

Being toxic to cells.

 

D

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Deacetylate:

To remove an acetyl group.

Depsipeptide:

A member of a class of HDAC inhibitors that is currently being used to treat some cancers.

Diffuse Large B Cell Lymphoma (DLBCL):

A cancer of white blood cells known as B cells. It is considered a very aggressive form of B-cell cancer.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid):

The molecule that carries genetic information in all living systems. It is found in the nucleus (meaning “center”) of the cell. Cancer cells contain abnormal expression of DNA, leading to uncontrolled cell division and growth.

DNA Transcription:

Part of the process by which information contained within the DNA is used to create or change a cell function. DNA is translated into RNA which is then transcribed into a protein that then performs a specified function.

Dose Limiting Toxicity (DLT):

A side effect that limits how much drug can be given to a patient.

Double Strand Breaks:

A complete break in a DNA molecule.

Downregulating:

Is the cell’s process of decreasing the quantity of its elements, such proteins, as a result of an external change.

Doxorubicin:

A chemotherapy drug given for many different kinds of cancer.

 

E

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Efficacy:

The ability of a drug to work. In cancer therapy it describes the effectiveness of a drug that works by attacking the tumor.

EGFR:

Receptor for epidermal growth factor (EGF). EGF is a protein found in the body that makes certain cells grow and develop.

EHA:

European Hematology Association.

Enbrel®:

A drug used to treat forms of arthritis and psoriasis.

Enzyme:

A type of protein that greatly speeds up the rate of chemical reactions inside and outside cells without itself being changed in the process.

Eosoniphilic esophagitis:

An inflammatory condition that affects the wall of the esophagus.

Epidermal:

A specific type of cells or tissues. An example is the skin.

Epigenetic:

Affecting a cell, organ or individual without directly affecting its DNA sequence.

Epitheleal:

Closely packed cells that are the primary body tissue.

Erythematosus:

A connective tissue disease such as lupus.

Esophagus:

Also known as the “gullet”. The tube through which food passes into the stomach.

Expression of protein products:

The process by which the information in a gene is used to create proteins.

Extravascular:

Outside the blood vessel system.

Extrinsic coagulation cascade:

The process of coagulation that activates tissue factor and enzymes to create a net of cross-linked fibrin.

Ex Vivo:

Outside of the body of an animal or human.

 

F

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Factor VIIa, Factor IXa, Factor Xa, Factor XIa:

A series of coagulation factors that are circulated outside the blood stream, and are within the microscopic or cellular environment surrounding tumors. Factor VII in combination with another protein called “tissue factor”, initiates the blood clotting process. In cancer, the Factor VII - Tissue Factor complex is found in abundance in lung, breast, pancreatic, gastric and colon tumors, and triggers many physiologic processes that facilitate angiogenesis and tumor growth. Animal models suggest that inhibitors of Factor VII may block tumor growth and metastasis.

Familial Cold (Autoinflammatory) Syndrome:

An inherited inflammatory condition that appears as rash, fevers and chills after exposure to cold.

Fats:

Molecules which make up cell membranes, they are important in insulating areas of the cell.

FDA (U.S. Food and Drug Administration):

The federal agency in charge of making sure that products like food, drugs and medical devices are safe and effective. They are also responsible for making sure that these products are accurately represented to the general public.

Fibrin:

A protein, with a “fiber-like” structure, involved in the clotting of blood.

Fibroblasts:

Cells that contribute to the formation of connective tissue fibers.

Fibrocollagenous Matrix:

A network of large quantities of collagen fibers that form connective tissue.

Fibrosarcoma:

A malignant tumor derived from fibrous connective tissue.

Fluorescent Probe:

A fluorescent marker used for imaging.

Foci:

Regions of localized infection or disease.

Follicular cells:

A type of cells found in glands of the body like the thyroid or lymph nodes.

Follicular Lymphoma:

A type of cancer of white blood cells known as B cells.

Fragmin® :

A type of medicine called low–molecular-weight heparin. It can help keep the blood from forming clots or keep a clot from getting larger.

 

G

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Gamma- irradiation:

A type of radiation with a specific wavelength, it is typically used for cancer treatment.

Gastric Cancer:

Cancer that forms from the cells that line the stomach.

Gemcitabine:

A chemotherapy drug used to treat many types of cancer like breast cancer, lung cancer, pancreatic cancer, and ovarian cancer.

Gene:

The information within DNA needed to make one protein, which then has an effect on creating individual functions or characteristics e.g. the hair to be brown, eyes to be blue etc.

Gene expression:

The process of how genetic information is used to create what is patterned by DNA.

Genome:

A full set of the DNA strands and all the inheritable traits of an organism.

Glioblastoma multiforme:

A type of cancer that arises in the brain.

Glioma:

A tumor coming from the supportive tissue of the nervous system or connective tissue of the brain, spinal cord, or other portions of the nervous system.

Glycoprotein:

A type of protein that has a sugar molecule attached to it.

Grade 3 Adverse Event:

A severely unfavorable and unintended sign of symptom or disease temporarily associated with a medical treatment of procedure that may or may not be considered associated with the treatment or procedure.

Graft:

To transplant or implant (living tissue) surgically into a bodily part to replace a damaged part or to compensate for a defect.

 

H

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Half-life:

The time its takes a drug to drop to half of its maximum concentration in blood.

Hazard Ratio:

Shows how big an effect a drug has and is commonly used to describe the outcome of a clinical trial. A Hazard Ratio (or also called Relative Hazard (RH)) of 1 indicates that a patient treated with the drug will have the same outcome as a patient treated without the drug. If the RH drops below 1 it indicates an improvement for those patients having received the drug.

Head and neck squamous carcinoma:

A malignant tumor of epithelial origin.

HER4:

One of many proteins in the body that helps cells grow and develop.

Hematological:

Having to do with blood or the study of blood.

Hematological malignancies:

Diseases affecting the blood system. In oncology, they are the types of cancer that affect blood, bone marrow and lymph nodes.

Hemorrhagic Shock:

Blood loss due to trauma.

Hemostasis:

When bleeding is stopped.

Heparin:

A chemical used often as an anticoagulant.

Herceptin:

A biologic drug used to treat certain kinds of cancer.

Hierarchy within a human body:

Organs (brain, heart, liver) Cells (e.g. brain cells, heart cells, liver cells etc.) Molecules (e.g. proteins, sugars, fats, etc.) Atoms (the basic chemical element), they are made up of Electrons (negatively charged particles) Protons (positively charged particle) Neutrons (neutrally charged particles).

Histamines:

Are part of a defense system, trying to get offending agents out of the body. Proteins that when released can cause allergy symptoms like runny nose and sneezing and itching.

Histology:

The study of cells and tissues as seen under a microscope.

Histologies:

Cancer arises from different parts of the body and within different parts of the same tissue. Histology is microscopic examination of the cancer to determine exactly which part of the tissue the cancer came from.

Histone Deacetylase (HDAC):

A protein inside of cells that helps control activity of genes.

Histone Deacetylase (HDAC) Inhibitors:

Small molecule drugs that stop the growth of tumor cells by preventing gene expression.

Histones:

Structural proteins that combine with DNA to form chromatin. Histones can be over-expressed in cancer cells.

Hodgins Lymphoma:

A cancer of white blood cells involving a specific type of cells called Reed-Sternberg cells. These are not found in any other cancerous lymphomas.

Homologous Recombination:

A term used to describe a process involved in duplication and separation of the chromosomes, when cells are dividing to grow.

Humira®:

A medication approved for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.

Hyperglycemia:

A patient with high blood sugar.

Hypoalbuminemia:

Low levels of a protein called “albumin” in the blood.

Hypokalemia:

Low levels of potassium in the blood.

Hyponatremia:

Low sodium (salt) levels in the blood.

Hypophoshatemia:

Low levels of phosphate in the blood.

 

I

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Immunodeficiency:

Any condition that causes an inability of the immune system to protect the body from disease and infections.

Immunoglobulin:

The proteins generated by B-cells that are specific to the type of pathogen encountered.

Immunohistochemical staining:

Technique for staining sections of tissue for the presence of selected proteins using specific antibodies.

Inflammatory Disease:

Diseases wherein the body’s immune system malfunctions and starts to attack itself instead of pathogens like virus and bacteria.

INR (International Normalized Ratio):

A blood clotting test.

Investigative New Drug application (IND):

After safety data in animals is gotten and indications exist that the drug may work, a drug developer is asking permission from the FDA to test a new drug within humans. A protocol would still need to be approved by an Investigative Review Board.

IND-enabling:

Preclinical studies including toxicology that are required by the FDA for entry of a drug into human trials.

Interleukin-1 beta, Interleukin-18:

Proteins that are produced by white blood cells and other immune cells in response to pathogenic stimulation.

Interspecies Scaling:

A mathematical process used to derive a human dose based on an animal dose.

Investigative Review Board (IRB):

Each University medical center or patient treatment center has a board that reviews investigational protocols. These boards typically consist of academic experts, an administrational representative, an ethics expert etc.

In vitro:

Outside of the body, in a petri dish, test tube, or sample/culture of some sort.

In vivo:

Within the body of a human or animal.

Isoform:

Different versions of a protein with some small differences.

 

J

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Jack 3:

A protein inside cells that is part of many signaling pathways.

 

K

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Kallikrein:

A group of proteins hat are a subgroup of the serine protease family. Kallikreins are targets of active investigation by drug researchers as possible biomarkers for cancer.

Keratinocytes:

The most common cell found in the outer most layer of skin.

Kinase:

An enzyme that activates other enzymes.

 

L

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Lesion:

A localized pathologic change in a bodily organ or tissue.

Leukemia:

A broad term covering a group of cancers of the blood cells and bone marrow, as distinguished from cancer that arises in the lymph system (i.e. lymphoma).

Leukocytes:

White blood cells that defend the body against disease and infection.

Low molecular weight heparin:

A medicine that can help keep the blood from forming clots or keep a clot from getting larger.

Lupus:

A chronic inflammatory disease that occurs when your body's immune system attacks your own tissues and organs.

Lyme disease:

A disease caused by bacteria that are usually transmitted to humans by the bite of a tick.

Lymphatic system:

A network of conduits that carries a clear fluid called lymph (from Latin meaning “water”) throughout the body. It also transports immune cells from the lymph nodes to the bones.

Lymph node:

A small circular ball shape organ of the immune system, distributed widely throughout the body and linked by lymphatic vessels.

Lymphocyte:

One of a group of white blood cells. They are found in the circulatory and lymphatic systems that play a key part in the immune system by releasing antibodies or by destroying pathogens.

Lymphoma:

A cancer that is detected in the lymph nodes and ducts as well as in the blood. The blood cancer cells grow out of control and do not function like normal blood cells.

Lymphostat B:

A drug being developed for treatment of lupus.

Lyn:

A protein inside cells that is part of many signaling pathways.

 

M

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Macrophages:

A type of white blood cell that helps fight infections by literally “eating” the pathogen (eg, viruses or bacteria).

Malignancy:

Where a group of cells display uncontrolled growth, invasion (intrusion on and destruction of adjacent tissues), and sometimes metastasis (spread to other locations in the body).

Mantle Cell Lymphoma:

A cancer of white blood cells known as B cells.

Mast Cells:

A type of immune cells found in tissues.

Mast Cell Degranulation:

Release of histamines, enzymes and other chemicals by mast cells in response to allergen stimulation.

Mast Cell disease:

A rare disease caused by too many mast cells which are located in the connective tissues of the body. This disease is often characterized by inflammatory symptoms like those of allergies.

Maturation:

Term used to describe cells that are developing into an advanced or terminal stage.

Mature B- Cells:

See above.

Maximum Tolerated Dose (MTD):

A dose of a drug considered the maximum that can be safely administered.

Mechanism of Action (MOA):

The biologic and chemical explanation for how a drug works.

Medullary thyroid cancer:

A thyroid carcinoma that originates in the cells of the thyroid gland that produce the calcitonin hormone, a part of calcium metabolism.

Membrane:

A thin, flexible, skin like tissue, especially that covering or lining organs or others structures in animals and plants.

Mesothelioma:

A cancer in the protective lining of many organs (eg, lung) that is caused by asbestos fibers.

Messenger RNA:

A form of RNA that is used in protein synthesis in the cell.

Metachronous:

When a brain metastasis is detected after the original cancer has been diagnosed.

Metastasis:

The spread of cancer from one part of the body to another.

Methotrexate:

A steroid used to treat many diseases.

Microenvironment of tumor cells:

The microscopic or cellular environment within and surrounding a tumor.

Microorganism:

A tiny living thing, such as bacterium, that can be seen only by using a microscope.

Microvessel density:

The number of capillaries per unit area in a mouse model of angiogenesis.

Migration of Cells:

Cells moving from one part of the body to another.

Modulation:

Changing the effect of something by increasing or decreasing a parameter.

Molar:

A unit of measurement that reports the number of molecules of a substance in a given volume.

Molecule:

A particle made up of two or more atoms.

Monocyte:

A blood cell precursor to macrophages (part of the body’s response to infection).

Monotherapy:

When only a single drug is given to treat a specific disease.

Motexafin Gadolinium (MGd):

A small molecule drug developed by Pharmacyclics. It is a member of a new class of small molecules, first developed at the University of Texas by Dr. Sessler that selectively accumulates in tumors and can enhance the clinical benefit from radiation or chemo therapy.

MRI:

Magnetic resonance imaging, a procedure to detect tumors in soft tissues.

Muckle-Wells Syndrome:

A rare inherited disease that is characterized by episodic inflammation and fevers that may lead to deafness.

Multiple Sclerosis:

A chronic disease of the central nervous system marked by destruction of the fatty material that surrounds and lines nerve fibers, resulting in severe neural and muscular impairments.

Murine Model:

Mouse model for biological testing.

Myeloid:

A term used to describe cells from a specific family of white blood cells, the myeloid lineage.

Mylosuppression:

Toxicity to the bone marrow such that the blood cells are greatly reduced in number and risk for infection increases.

 

N

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Nanomolar:

10-9 molar

NDA (New Drug Application):

After sufficient clinical testing has been completed a drug developer asks permission from the FDA to market the drug by filing an NDA.

Neoplastic malignancies:

A name used to generically refer to any type of cancer.

Neurological Progression / Time to Neurologic Progression (TNP):

The time it takes to develop an impaired brain function, e.g. speech impediment, blurred vision, loss of hearing, loss of memory, inability to think clearly etc.

Neutropenia:

Low white blood cell count, specific to white blood cells known as neutrophils.

Neutrophils:

A type of circulating white blood cell.

NF Kappa B:

A group of proteins responsible for transcription of certain genes.

NK Cells:

NK stands for “natural killer”. NK cells are a type of white blood cells that help fight infection by “killing” the pathogen (eg, bacteria).

Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma (NHL):

All kinds of lymphomas except Hodgkin’s disease.

Nonsmall cell lung cancer:

After examining lung cancer cells in a microscope, oncologists determine which cells are affected. Cancer cells are determined to be small or nonsmall cell. About 80% of all lung cancer cases are of the nonsmall cell type.

Novel targets:

Previously unidentified control points in a disease. In cancer research targets are those things that are being address by a drug to stop, hinder or destroy cancer growth.

Nucleic Acid:

A molecule that contains the genetic information in a cell. DNA and RNA are nucleic acids.

Nucelus of the cell:

The part of the cell where DNA (genetic information) is located.

 

O

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Oncogene:

A gene that, when expressed at high levels, helps turn a normal cell into a cancer cell.

Oncology:

The study and treatment of cancer.

Open Label:

When the patient and the doctor know the name of the drug being administered in a clinical trial.

Overall Response Rate (ORR):

A term used in clinical trials (usually cancer trials) to term how effective the therapy is.

Overexpress:

In biology, to make too many copies of a protein or other substance. Overexpression may play a role in cancer development.

Oxidative Damage/Stress:

Oxidation means accepting an electron. Radiation therapy and some chemo therapies cause an increase in highly charged toxic molecules that damage tumor cells in a process called oxidative stress. The cancer molecules get oversupplied with charge from electrons.

 

P

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P 38:

Protein within cells that is part of the cell signaling pathways. It is involved in signaling pathways leading to inflammation.

Palliate:

Improve the quality of life or lessen the negative effects of cancer.

Pancreatic Cancer:

A malignant tumor of the pancreas.

Pancreas:

A gland organ in the body that produces hormones (eg, insulin) and aids with digestion.

Pancreatic Insulinoma Model:

Mouse model for studying tumors of the pancreas.

Papillary thyroid carcinoma:

The most common form of thyroid cancer. It forms in follicular cells in small finger-like shapes.

Parasite:

A living creature that lives on or in a different kind of living creature.

PARPi:

Inhibitors of specific proteins inside cells known as PARP. PARP proteins help with DNA repair. Some cancer cells depend on PARP to repair DNA so they can survive. PARPi inhibitors are being tested as cancer therapy for this reason.

Partial response:

Clinically significant improvement in the disease, but not disease free.

Pathogen:

An infectious agent; commonly called a “germ”.

PCI-27483:

A Pharmacyclics product.

Pemetrexed:

Another name for Alimta, a drug used in chemo therapy.

Peptidases:

A protein within cells that is responsible for breaking down other proteins.

Peptide:

The smallest unit of a protein.

Pericarditis:

Inflammation of the protective sac that surrounds the heart.

Petri dish:

plastic or glass dishes used in laboratories to grow things like bacteria, plants, or cells.

Pharmacodynamics (PD):

The study of how a drug affects the body. This includes determining the best does and regimen for administering the drug and what the side effects might be at different doses. This information is an important part of the clinical trial process.

Pharmacokinetic (PK):

The study of how the body affects a drug by measuring levels of drug in your blood, urine, and/or stool. This includes determining how the body metabolizes the drug, how it excretes or gets rid of the drug and what the side effects might be at different doses. This information is an important part of the clinical trial process.

Pharmacologic:

The science of drugs including their uses and effects.

Pharmacologic Mechanism:

How does a drug work in your body or on your cells.

Phase I Clinical Trial:

One of the steps involved in the drug approval process. In this phase, doctors try to establish the safety of the new drug, the best dose to give and the best way to give it. They also begin to get information showing how much the new drug could benefit patients.

Phase II Clinical Trial:

In this phase of testing, doctors try to confirm the safety and dosing of the new drug as well as its effectiveness.

Phase III Clinical Trial:

In this phase of testing, doctors try to definitively establish the safety and efficacy of the new drug. These are the most important trials required by the FDA (Food and Drug Administration) and are done to rigorously establish the clinical benefit and safety profile of a drug in a particular patient population. In many cases this involves one or two clinical trials.

Phenotype:

Any observed morphological, developmental, or biochemical property of an organism.

Phosphorylation:

Reaction in which a phosphate group becomes bonded to another molecule.

Photon:

A discreet unit of light, an energy unit, it does not have mass. Photons are used to describe the energy of some types of radiation.

Photosynthesis:

Use by green plants of the energy in sunlight to carry out chemical reactions.

Physiologic:

Of or pertaining to the processes and functions of an organism.

Physiologic Doses:

Minimum level of medicine in your blood necessary to have its intended effect on the target cells.

Pivotal Trial:

A clinical trial accepted by the FDA for drug approval.

Plasma:

The part of the blood that is liquid only and contains no blood cells.

Platelet:

A cell fragment found in blood that plugs breaks in blood vessels and helps blood form clots.

Platelet deposition:

Activated platelets forming vascular deposits (e.g. Alzheimer’s disease).

Platinum:

A chemical element. It is a type of metal.

Polymerase:

Any of several enzymes that change the formation of a long-chain molecule by linking smaller molecular units.

Porphyrins:

A type of organic molecule. A common one is called “heme” and is part of the pigment in red blood cells, which makes them red.

Postulate:

Claim or assume the existence or truth of, esp. as a basis for reasoning or arguing.

Potassium:

A chemical element. In the human body it is necessary for the function of all living cells.

Power Calculation:

Power means probability, it indicates the probability of success for a new trial. It also defines the number of patients one needs to sample to get a defined outcome with a certain probability, e.g. if the power is 99% with 600 patients, it means that by enrolling 600 patients into the trial the probability is 99% of achieving a p value of 0.05. All this assumes always the observed effects and noise levels of the previous trials will represent the true effect and true noise level in the next trial. This can actually get worse or better and may not stay the same.

Preclinical:

Studies done in animals or in cell cultures to show that a new drug should be tested in humans.

Preclinical optimization:

Developing experiments in the lab to optimize potential clinical results.

Progression:

The worsening of disease or the increase in size of a tumor.

Proof-of-concept Study:

A trial to demonstrate clinical efficacy.

Protease:

An enzyme that acts on proteins, converting them into other molecules by breaking them down.

Protease-activated receptors (PARs):

Transmembrane proteins that cause a physiologic response when acted on by enzymes.

Protein:

One of a group of varied and versatile substances, made mainly from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen atoms. They are built from subunits called amino acids that perform a wide range of functions as, for example, enzymes, antibodies, or structural proteins. Proteins are fundamental components of all living cells necessary for proper function.

Protein synthesis:

The process by which proteins are made in the body.

Proteinuria:

A condition wherein urine contains an unusual amount of protein.

Proteolytic Activity:

Activity where a protein undergoes a conversion when acted upon by another molecule.

Prothrombin:

A blood-clotting protein.

Prothrombin time:

Time it takes your blood to clot.

Prothrombinase complex:

The complex formed of Factors Xa, Factor V and calcium which converts Factor II (prothrombin) into Factor IIa (thrombin). This activity is part of the clotting process.

Psoriasis:

A common chronic, inflammatory skin disease characterized by scaly patches.

P-value:

In the testing of a statistical hypothesis, the p value is the probability that the result of the trial is not real and has occurred by chance. The FDA usually requires the p value to be smaller than 0.05 (or 5%) before approving a drug. Statisticians have to ensure that the variability of the results is low and that any future usage of the drug has a 95% chance of being repeatable.

 

Q

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QTc:

Calculated QT interval, in an ECG tracing.

QTc prolongation:

In electrocardiogram readings, the QT interval is dependent on the heart rate. Prolongation of the QT interval is associated with high risk for disturbance in the rhythm of the heart and for a heart attack.

 

R

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RAD51:

A protein involved in repairing double strand breaks in DNA.

Radiation Therapy:

Externally generated energy beam that is focused on the cancer site. It damages the cancer cell when it absorbs the energy.

Radio Surgery:

Non-invasive surgery alternative that uses highly locally focused radiation therapy to kill single lesions of cancer, e.g with brain lesions rather than traditional surgery. This therapy form uses much less radiation than Whole Brain Radiation Therapy would apply.

Randomized:

A term is used to describe the process of assigning patients to the group of drug using patients (treatment arm) or to the group of non-drug using patients (control arm). This is done to ensure that the results obtained in a trial are based on an unbiased patient population.

Rational Drug Design:

Designing a drug based off of biological functions and helping these mechanisms to either start or stop.

Reactive Oxygen Species:

A highly reactive form of oxygen.

Red blood cell:

Cells in the blood that help carry oxygen to the tissues.

Receptors:

A protein molecule structure or site on the surface or interior of a cell that binds with substances and transmit genetic information.

Redox (reduction-oxidation reaction):

Oxidation describes the loss of electrons by a molecule, reduction describes the gain of electrons. Many important biological reactions involve redox reactions, such as photosynthesis and cellular respiration where energy is transferred to a cell by a series of steps passing along electrons.

Redox-dependent:

When a function in the cell is dependent on the passing on of electrons/energy.

Redox-dependent pathways:

Metabolism of the cell.

Relative Hazard:

A term used in statistics to describe the efficaciousness of a drug compared to the standard of care. It is calculated by determining the probability of a failure while receiving the new drug (the treatment arm) divided by the probability of failure while not receiving the drug (the control arm). If this is estimated at e.g. 0.47, it means the risk (i.e. probability) of failure when not receiving the drug is 2.12 (1/0.47) times as large as the risk of failure when receiving the drug.

Renal cell carcinoma:

A form of cancer in kidney cells.

Rituxan®:

A drug used to treat certain types of non-Hodgkin lymphoma and to treat rheumatoid arthritis.

Rheumatoid arthritis:

An auto-immune disease that causes the swelling and stiffening of the joints as it causes the body to make antibodies against the lining of the joints, causing arthritis. The antibodies are made by the B-cells and are transmitted in the blood to the lining of the joint.

RNA (Ribonucleic acid):

A long strand molecule which transmits genetic information contained in the nucleus of the cell to other parts of the cell.

 

S

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Sarc Family:

A family of proteins found within a cell that participate in many signaling pathways.

Sarcoma:

A malignant tumor arising from soft or connective tissues.

Selectivity:

A drug’s ability to accurately reach its target.

Sepsis:

The presence of toxins in the blood or tissue.

Serine Protease:

Enzymes that cut the chemical bonds between molecules in proteins.

Small Lymphocytic Lymphoma (SLL):

A cancer of white blood cells known as B cells.

Stem Cells:

A primitive cell that can divide and each “daughter cell” can grow into a different kind of mature cell type. For example a blood stem cell can divide and produce both white blood cells and red blood cells.

Stereotactic radiosurgery:

Focused radiation beams are delivered to a specific area of the brain to treat abnormalities, tumors or functional disorders.

Steroid:

An organic compound with a specific chemical structure. Examples of steroids include testosterone and cholesterol.

Serum Ig/Serum Immunoglobulin:

A test that measures the proteins that function as antibodies in the blood.

Stills disease:

A type of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis.

Subcutaneous:

Under the skin.

Sugars:

Molecules that provide energy to a cell. As the cell breaks down the sugars it releases energy, this energy is released in the form of electrons.

Syk:

A human enzyme encoded within the SYK gene. Abnormal function may be associated with certain forms of cancer.

Synergy:

Two or more stimuli or drugs working together.

Systemic:

Affecting the body as a whole.

 

T

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Taxotere:

An anti-cancer drug, used to treat patients with different types of cancer, such as lung cancer, prostate cancer and head and neck cancers.

T-cell (T- Lymphocyte):

A type of white blood cell that plays a key part in the immune system by destroying pathogen-infected cells and cancer cells or by activating other immune system cells.

T-cell lymphoma:

A type of cancer that affects cells that normally protect the body from disease (t-cells).

Temozolomide:

A chemotherapy drug that is used to treat some kinds of brain cancer.

Texaphyrins:

A new class of molecules designed to selectively accumulate in a variety of locations that are either activated by light or enhance their activity by radiation. The name was given to these molecules by Dr. Sessler from the University of Texas.

Therapeutic Index:

Comparison of the amount of therapeutic effect versus the toxic effects.

Thioredoxin Reductase:

An enzyme that helps to repair oxidative damage in a cell. It is one of the targets of MGd. Inhibiting Thioredoxin Reductase, such as by MGD, increases the stress on a tumor cell after having been damaged by radiation and hinders it from repairing itself.

Thrombin:

An enzyme of the blood plasma at work in the last step of the blood clotting process.

Thrombocytopenia:

Low blood platelet count, usually occuring in people who have leukemia, an immune system malfunction, or as a medication side effect.

Thrombosis:

The process by which the blood clots within a blood vessel.

Thyroid gland:

A large gland in the body that produces important hormones, which control metabolism and growth rate.

Tissue Factor:

A protein found in the body that helps with clotting.

Transcription:

The process whereby genes are “transcribed” from DNA into RNA.

Transcription of messenger RNA:

The process by which DNA creates a string of RNA that carries specific instructions for cell activity.

Transgenic:

The transfer of a gene from one species to another.

Transmembrane protein:

A protein which spans from the internal to the external surface of the biological membrane.

Treatment arm:

Those patients enrolled in a trial that receive the investigative drug. Once the treatment phase is completed the results of the treatment arm are compared with those of the control arm (i.e., those that did not receive the investigative drug).

Tubulin:

The proteins that help to maintain cell shape.

Tumor:

An abnormal growth of cells.

Tumor Suppressor Genes:

Genes that contain the information for proteins that control cancer cell growth.

Tumor Response:

How cancer cells respond to treatment.

Tyrosine Kinase:

A type of enzyme involved primarily in signaling between cells.

 

U

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Upregulation:

The process, in the regulation of gene expression, in which the number, or activity or receptors increases in order to increase sensitivity or cause a change in the activity of the cell.

 

V

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Venous thromboembolism (VTE):

When blood clots occur and travel through the veins.

Vivo:

Latin for “live”.

Vorinostat:

A member of a larger group of compounds that inhibit histone deacetylases (HDAC).

 

W

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White Blood Cell:

Blood is made up of cells, proteins and liquid. The main types of cells in blood are red blood cells that carry oxygen and white blood cells that provide immune function and surveillance. White blood cells (or WBCs) are constantly patrolling the body looking for foreign invaders.

Whole Brain Radiation Therapy (WBRT):

Radiation therapy applied to the whole brain, today one of the standard forms of care when multiple lesions in the brain are detected.

 

X

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Xcytrin:

An earlier trade name for metaxofin gadolinium (MGd).

Xenograft:

A surgical graft of tissue from one species to an unlike species.

X-Linked Agammaglobulinemia (XLA):

A genetic disorder that affects B cells.

 

Y

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Z

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